References
1 “Approaches to the German Problem,” Partisan Review 12 (1945), 96.
2 “Through that Glass Darkly,” reprinted in No Passion Spent: Essays 1978–1996 (London,
1996), 336.
3 “Luther-Kundgebung im Schloßhof,” Ko¨nigsberg-HartungscheZeitung, 20 November 1933 (in
Bundesarchiv Potsdam [hereafter BAP] R5101/23189/83).
4 Hans Iwand, Briefe an Rudolf Hermann, edited by Karl Steck (Munich, 1964), 251–2.
5 Quoted in ibid.
6 The magnitude of Koch’s brutality is detailed in Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia: A
Study of Occupation Policies (New York, 1957); Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution
(Berkeley, 1984), 120–34.
7 Institut f ¨ ur Zeitgeschichte (hereafter IfZ) MC 1 (15 July 1949).
8 John Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches (London, 1968), 15–16, 140.
9 Susannah Heschel, “When Jesus was an Aryan: The Protestant Church and Antisemitic
Propaganda,” in Robert Ericksen and Susannah Heschel (eds.), Betrayal: German Churches
and the Holocaust (Minneapolis, 1999), 81.
10 The literature on the churches under Nazism is vast and still growing. I make no attempt
here to provide a comprehensive overview. Some of the more prominent works in the earlier
apologetic vein are Hans Buchheim, GlaubenskriseimDrittenReich:DreiKapitel nationalsozialistischer
Religionspolitik (Stuttgart, 1953); John Conway, TheNazi Persecution of the Churches
(London, 1968); Beate Ruhm von Oppen, ReligionandResistance toNazism (Princeton, 1971).
11 Besides the works previously cited, there is Hubert Locke (ed.), The Church Confronts the
Nazis: Barmen Then and Now (New York, 1984) and, more recently, Theodore Thomas,
Women Against Hitler: Christian Resistance in the Third Reich (Westport, CT, 1995).
12 Karl Barth, “Protestant Churches in Europe,” Foreign Affairs 21 (1943), 263–5.
13 John Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope: The SecretHistory of Pius XII (New York, 1999); David Kertzer,
The Popes against the Jews: The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Antisemitism (New York,
2001); Michael Phayer, The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965 (Bloomington,
IN, 2000).
14 Again, this is a vast literature, incapable of being summarized. Prominent examples include
Robert Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler: Gerhard Kittel, Paul Althaus and Emmanuel
Hirsch (New Haven, 1985); Manfred Gailus, Protestantismus und Nationalsozialismus: Studien
zur nationalsozialistischen Durchdringung des protestantischen Sozialmilieus in Berlin (Cologne,
2001); Ernst Klee, ‘Die SA Jesu Christi’: Die Kirche im Banne Hitlers (Frankfurt a.M., 1989);
Bj ¨ orn Mensing, Pfarrer und Nationalsozialismus: Geschichte einer Verstrickung am Beispiel der
Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirchen in Bayern (G ¨ ottingen, 1998); J.R.C. Wright, ‘Above Parties’:
The Political Attitudes of the German Protestant Church Leadership 1918–1933 (Oxford,
1974). An excellent overview can be found in Robert Ericksen and Susannah Heschel, “The
German Churches Face Hitler.” The collection of essays Ericksen and Heschel have edited, Betrayal:
German Churches and the Holocaust, provides the best compendium of current Englishlanguage
research on the topic.
15 Shelley Baranowski, The Confessing Church, Conservative Elites, and theNazi State (Lewiston,
NY, 1986); Victoria Barnett, For the Soul of the People: Protestant Protest Against Hitler
(New York, 1992) (title notwithstanding); Wolfgang Gerlach, Als die Zeugen schwiegen:
Bekennende Kirche und die Juden (Berlin, 1987).
16 Klaus Scholder, A Requiem for Hitler and Other New Perspectives on the German Church
Struggle (London, 1989), 109. See also his magisterial The Churches and the Third Reich,
2 vols. (London, 1987–8).
17 Conway, Persecution, 14.
18 Doris Bergen, Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich (Chapel Hill,
1996), 192.
19 Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology
(Berkeley, 1974), xxv (emphasis in the original).
20 George Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (New York, 1975), 80. See as well Robert
Pois, National Socialism and the Religion ofNature (London, 1985); James Rhodes, The Hitler
Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford, 1980); Klaus Vondung, Magie und
Manipulation: Ideologischer Kult und politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (G ¨ ottingen,
1971).
21 Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (New York, 2000), 256.
22 Wolfgang Altgeld, Katholizismus, Protestantismus, Judentum: U¨ ber religio¨s begru¨ndeter
Gegensa¨tze und nationalreligio¨ ser Ideen in der Geschichte des deutschen Nationalismus (Mainz,
1992), especially 165–181.
23 Wolfgang Altgeld, “Religion, Denomination and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century
Germany,” in Helmut Walser Smith (ed.), Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany, 1800–
1914 (Oxford, 2001), 52.
24 Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict: Culture, Ideology, Politics,
1870–1914 (Princeton, 1995).
25 Rainer L¨ achele, “Protestantismus und v ¨ olkische Religion im deutschen Kaiserrreich,” in Uwe
Puschner, Walter Schmitz, and Justus Ulbricht (eds), Handbuch zur ‘Vo¨ lkischen Bewegung’
1871–1918 (Munich, 1999), 149–63, here 152.
26 Wolfgang Tilgner, Volksnomostheologie und Scho¨pfungsglaube: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des
Kirchenkampfes (G ¨ ottingen, 1966); Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler. See as well Karl
Kupisch, “The Luther Renaissance,” Journal of Contemporary History 2 (1967), 39–49.
27 G¨ unter Brakelmann, “Nationalprotestantismus und Nationalsozialismus,” in Christian
Jansen et al. (eds.), Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit: Politische Verantwortung und bu¨ rgerliche
Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1995), 337–50.
28 Maurice Olender, The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion and Philology in the Nineteenth
Century, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, MA, 1992).
29 For South Africa, see T. Dunbar Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid, and
theAfrikaner CivilReligion (Berkeley, 1975), and Leonard Thompson, The Political Mythology
of Apartheid (New Haven, 1985). For the United States, see Michael Barkun, Religion and
the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement (Chapel Hill, 1994); David
Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1965, 3rd ed.
(Durham, 1987); Leo Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the
Great Depression to the ColdWar (Philadelphia, 1983).
30 Just a few of the many important works include Hermann Greive, Geschichte des modernen
Antisemitismus in Deutschland (Darmstadt, 1983); Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction:
Antisemitism, 1700–1933 (Cambridge, MA, 1980); Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political
Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Reinhard R¨ urup,
Emanzipation und Antisemitismus: Studien zur ‘Judenfrage’ in der bu¨ rgerlichen Gesellschaft
(G ¨ ottingen, 1975); Uriel Tal, Christians and Jews inGermany: Religion, Politics and Ideology in
the Second Reich 1870–1914 (Ithaca, 1975).
31 See, among others, Olaf Blaschke, Katholizismus und Antisemitismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich
(G ¨ ottingen, 1997); Gavin Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley, 1990);
Paul Lawrence Rose, RevolutionaryAntisemitism in Germany from Kant toWagner (Princeton,
1990); John Weiss, Ideology of Death: Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago,
1996).
32 For instance, see Jonathan Frankel (ed.), The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945:Continuity
or Contingency? (Oxford, 1997), in which the majority of the contributors emphatically argue
for the latter option.
33 Peter Pulzer, Antisemitism, xxii.
34 Jacob Katz, Prejudice, 319.
35 Saul Friedl ¨ander, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939 (New York,
1997), 85.
36 Richard L. Rubenstein, AfterAuschwitz: History, Theology andContemporary Judaism, 2nd ed.
(Baltimore, 1992), 31. Arguing in a somewhat similar vein is Franklin Littell, TheCrucifixion
of the Jews (New York, 1962).
37 For more on this concept, see Ian Kershaw, “‘Cumulative Radicalisation’ and the Uniqueness
of National Socialism,” in Jansen et al., Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit, 323–336.
38 Geoff Eley, “What is Cultural History?,” New German Critique 65 (1995), 34.
39 Jane Caplan, “Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, and Deconstruction: Notes for Historians,”
Central European History 22 (1989), 275–6.
40 The conceptual distinctions between fascist “text” and “action,” between “essence” and
“process,” and how this corresponds with the “movement” and “regime” phases of fascism,
is brought out very well in Robert Paxton, “The Five Stages of Fascism,” Journal of Modern
History 70 (1998), 1–23.
41 Geoff Eley, “What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist
State?,” Politics and Society 12 (1983), 63.
2 “Through that Glass Darkly,” reprinted in No Passion Spent: Essays 1978–1996 (London,
1996), 336.
3 “Luther-Kundgebung im Schloßhof,” Ko¨nigsberg-HartungscheZeitung, 20 November 1933 (in
Bundesarchiv Potsdam [hereafter BAP] R5101/23189/83).
4 Hans Iwand, Briefe an Rudolf Hermann, edited by Karl Steck (Munich, 1964), 251–2.
5 Quoted in ibid.
6 The magnitude of Koch’s brutality is detailed in Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia: A
Study of Occupation Policies (New York, 1957); Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution
(Berkeley, 1984), 120–34.
7 Institut f ¨ ur Zeitgeschichte (hereafter IfZ) MC 1 (15 July 1949).
8 John Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches (London, 1968), 15–16, 140.
9 Susannah Heschel, “When Jesus was an Aryan: The Protestant Church and Antisemitic
Propaganda,” in Robert Ericksen and Susannah Heschel (eds.), Betrayal: German Churches
and the Holocaust (Minneapolis, 1999), 81.
10 The literature on the churches under Nazism is vast and still growing. I make no attempt
here to provide a comprehensive overview. Some of the more prominent works in the earlier
apologetic vein are Hans Buchheim, GlaubenskriseimDrittenReich:DreiKapitel nationalsozialistischer
Religionspolitik (Stuttgart, 1953); John Conway, TheNazi Persecution of the Churches
(London, 1968); Beate Ruhm von Oppen, ReligionandResistance toNazism (Princeton, 1971).
11 Besides the works previously cited, there is Hubert Locke (ed.), The Church Confronts the
Nazis: Barmen Then and Now (New York, 1984) and, more recently, Theodore Thomas,
Women Against Hitler: Christian Resistance in the Third Reich (Westport, CT, 1995).
12 Karl Barth, “Protestant Churches in Europe,” Foreign Affairs 21 (1943), 263–5.
13 John Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope: The SecretHistory of Pius XII (New York, 1999); David Kertzer,
The Popes against the Jews: The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Antisemitism (New York,
2001); Michael Phayer, The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965 (Bloomington,
IN, 2000).
14 Again, this is a vast literature, incapable of being summarized. Prominent examples include
Robert Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler: Gerhard Kittel, Paul Althaus and Emmanuel
Hirsch (New Haven, 1985); Manfred Gailus, Protestantismus und Nationalsozialismus: Studien
zur nationalsozialistischen Durchdringung des protestantischen Sozialmilieus in Berlin (Cologne,
2001); Ernst Klee, ‘Die SA Jesu Christi’: Die Kirche im Banne Hitlers (Frankfurt a.M., 1989);
Bj ¨ orn Mensing, Pfarrer und Nationalsozialismus: Geschichte einer Verstrickung am Beispiel der
Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirchen in Bayern (G ¨ ottingen, 1998); J.R.C. Wright, ‘Above Parties’:
The Political Attitudes of the German Protestant Church Leadership 1918–1933 (Oxford,
1974). An excellent overview can be found in Robert Ericksen and Susannah Heschel, “The
German Churches Face Hitler.” The collection of essays Ericksen and Heschel have edited, Betrayal:
German Churches and the Holocaust, provides the best compendium of current Englishlanguage
research on the topic.
15 Shelley Baranowski, The Confessing Church, Conservative Elites, and theNazi State (Lewiston,
NY, 1986); Victoria Barnett, For the Soul of the People: Protestant Protest Against Hitler
(New York, 1992) (title notwithstanding); Wolfgang Gerlach, Als die Zeugen schwiegen:
Bekennende Kirche und die Juden (Berlin, 1987).
16 Klaus Scholder, A Requiem for Hitler and Other New Perspectives on the German Church
Struggle (London, 1989), 109. See also his magisterial The Churches and the Third Reich,
2 vols. (London, 1987–8).
17 Conway, Persecution, 14.
18 Doris Bergen, Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich (Chapel Hill,
1996), 192.
19 Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology
(Berkeley, 1974), xxv (emphasis in the original).
20 George Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (New York, 1975), 80. See as well Robert
Pois, National Socialism and the Religion ofNature (London, 1985); James Rhodes, The Hitler
Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford, 1980); Klaus Vondung, Magie und
Manipulation: Ideologischer Kult und politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (G ¨ ottingen,
1971).
21 Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (New York, 2000), 256.
22 Wolfgang Altgeld, Katholizismus, Protestantismus, Judentum: U¨ ber religio¨s begru¨ndeter
Gegensa¨tze und nationalreligio¨ ser Ideen in der Geschichte des deutschen Nationalismus (Mainz,
1992), especially 165–181.
23 Wolfgang Altgeld, “Religion, Denomination and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century
Germany,” in Helmut Walser Smith (ed.), Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany, 1800–
1914 (Oxford, 2001), 52.
24 Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict: Culture, Ideology, Politics,
1870–1914 (Princeton, 1995).
25 Rainer L¨ achele, “Protestantismus und v ¨ olkische Religion im deutschen Kaiserrreich,” in Uwe
Puschner, Walter Schmitz, and Justus Ulbricht (eds), Handbuch zur ‘Vo¨ lkischen Bewegung’
1871–1918 (Munich, 1999), 149–63, here 152.
26 Wolfgang Tilgner, Volksnomostheologie und Scho¨pfungsglaube: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des
Kirchenkampfes (G ¨ ottingen, 1966); Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler. See as well Karl
Kupisch, “The Luther Renaissance,” Journal of Contemporary History 2 (1967), 39–49.
27 G¨ unter Brakelmann, “Nationalprotestantismus und Nationalsozialismus,” in Christian
Jansen et al. (eds.), Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit: Politische Verantwortung und bu¨ rgerliche
Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1995), 337–50.
28 Maurice Olender, The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion and Philology in the Nineteenth
Century, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, MA, 1992).
29 For South Africa, see T. Dunbar Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid, and
theAfrikaner CivilReligion (Berkeley, 1975), and Leonard Thompson, The Political Mythology
of Apartheid (New Haven, 1985). For the United States, see Michael Barkun, Religion and
the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement (Chapel Hill, 1994); David
Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1965, 3rd ed.
(Durham, 1987); Leo Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the
Great Depression to the ColdWar (Philadelphia, 1983).
30 Just a few of the many important works include Hermann Greive, Geschichte des modernen
Antisemitismus in Deutschland (Darmstadt, 1983); Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction:
Antisemitism, 1700–1933 (Cambridge, MA, 1980); Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political
Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Reinhard R¨ urup,
Emanzipation und Antisemitismus: Studien zur ‘Judenfrage’ in der bu¨ rgerlichen Gesellschaft
(G ¨ ottingen, 1975); Uriel Tal, Christians and Jews inGermany: Religion, Politics and Ideology in
the Second Reich 1870–1914 (Ithaca, 1975).
31 See, among others, Olaf Blaschke, Katholizismus und Antisemitismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich
(G ¨ ottingen, 1997); Gavin Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley, 1990);
Paul Lawrence Rose, RevolutionaryAntisemitism in Germany from Kant toWagner (Princeton,
1990); John Weiss, Ideology of Death: Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago,
1996).
32 For instance, see Jonathan Frankel (ed.), The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945:Continuity
or Contingency? (Oxford, 1997), in which the majority of the contributors emphatically argue
for the latter option.
33 Peter Pulzer, Antisemitism, xxii.
34 Jacob Katz, Prejudice, 319.
35 Saul Friedl ¨ander, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939 (New York,
1997), 85.
36 Richard L. Rubenstein, AfterAuschwitz: History, Theology andContemporary Judaism, 2nd ed.
(Baltimore, 1992), 31. Arguing in a somewhat similar vein is Franklin Littell, TheCrucifixion
of the Jews (New York, 1962).
37 For more on this concept, see Ian Kershaw, “‘Cumulative Radicalisation’ and the Uniqueness
of National Socialism,” in Jansen et al., Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit, 323–336.
38 Geoff Eley, “What is Cultural History?,” New German Critique 65 (1995), 34.
39 Jane Caplan, “Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, and Deconstruction: Notes for Historians,”
Central European History 22 (1989), 275–6.
40 The conceptual distinctions between fascist “text” and “action,” between “essence” and
“process,” and how this corresponds with the “movement” and “regime” phases of fascism,
is brought out very well in Robert Paxton, “The Five Stages of Fascism,” Journal of Modern
History 70 (1998), 1–23.
41 Geoff Eley, “What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist
State?,” Politics and Society 12 (1983), 63.